High-performance organic photodiodes (OPDs) and OPD-based image sensors are primarily realized using solution processes based on various additives and coating methods. However, vacuum-processed OPDs, which are more compatible with large-scale production, have received little attention, thereby hindering their integration into advanced systems. This study introduces innovations in the material and device structures to prepare superior vacuum-processed OPDs for commercial applications. A series of vacuum-processable, low-cost p-type semiconductors is developed by introducing an electron-rich cyclopentadithiophene core containing various electron-accepting moieties to fine-tune the energy levels without any significant structural or molecular weight changes. An additional nanointerlayer strategy is used to control the crystalline orientation of the upper-deposited photoactive layer, compensating for device performance reduction in inverted, top-illuminated OPDs. These approaches yielded an external quantum efficiency of 70% and a specific detectivity of 2.0 × 1012 Jones in the inverted structures, which are vital for commercial applications. These OPDs enabled visible-light communications with extremely low bit error rates and successful X-ray image capture.
The X-ray sensors were evaluated with the assistance of Vieworks Co. (Anyang, 14055, Republic of Korea). This study was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2024-00422305 and 2022M3H4A1A03067131).
